Ellipsis and Substitution in Grammar: Cohesion Devices with Clear Examples

Introduction – Why Ellipsis and Substitution Matter

If you want your English to sound natural, connected and easy to follow, you must understand ellipsis and substitution in grammar. These two cohesion devices help writers and speakers avoid boring repetition. They make texts flow smoothly, whether in a WAEC passage, a JAMB comprehension, a KCSE composition, an IELTS essay or a WhatsApp chat.

Many learners meet ellipsis and substitution for the first time in advanced grammar books or marking schemes. The ideas seem abstract. Yet you already use them every day:

• “Are you coming?” – “Yes, I am.”
• “I’ll take the red biro; you can take the blue one.”
• “Don’t know.” (instead of “I don’t know.”)

This article will guide you step by step:

1. Clear definitions of ellipsis and substitution as cohesion devices
2. Simple explanations and types
3. Plenty of examples from Nigerian, African and global contexts
4. Short quizzes, a checklist, plus assignments with answers

By the end, you should feel confident spotting and using ellipsis and substitution in any English exam and in everyday communication.

What Are Cohesion Devices?

Before we zoom in, let us place ellipsis and substitution in the bigger picture.

Cohesion devices are tools that link ideas inside a text so that it feels like one whole, not a list of random sentences. Common cohesion devices include:

• Reference: pronouns and determiners (he, she, it, this, those)
• Conjunctions: and, but, because, although, however
• Lexical cohesion: repetition of key words, synonyms, related words
• Ellipsis and substitution: leaving out or replacing repeated words

In other words, ellipsis and substitution sit beside pronouns and connectives as part of the “glue” of English texts. Linguists and teacher-training books group them under grammatical cohesion devices (see, for example, the overview in Cambridge’s Grammar for English Language Teachers).

Ellipsis in Grammar – Definition and Explanation

Ellipsis is the leaving out of words that are understood from context, so the sentence still makes sense. The full form is grammatically possible, but native speakers choose a shorter form.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary grammar, ellipsis happens when we omit items we would normally expect, but the meaning remains clear from the situation or surrounding text Cambridge Dictionary – Ellipsis

Compare:

• Full form: “Are you ready?” – “Yes, I am ready.”
• With ellipsis: “Are you ready?” – “Yes, I am.”
• Even shorter: “Ready?” – “Yes.”

In each answer, some words are missing, but we still understand them because the question provides the context.

Two Main Kinds of Ellipsis

Most grammarians talk about two main kinds:

1. Textual ellipsis
   Words are left out because earlier parts of the text make them clear.
2. Situational ellipsis
   Words are left out because the situation or shared knowledge makes them clear.

Let us look at each.

Textual Ellipsis

Here, previous sentences make the missing words obvious.

Example 1 (WAEC-style narrative)

Chidi bought a new phone last week. Yesterday, his sister also bought [a new phone].

In the second sentence we often say:

Yesterday, his sister also bought one.

or even:

Yesterday, his sister also bought [one].

The phrase “a new phone” is omitted or reduced because it already appears in the first sentence.

Example 2 (coordinated clauses)

• We went to Abuja and [we] visited my uncle.
• I can cook jollof rice, and my brother can [cook jollof rice] too.

The subject we and the verb phrase cook jollof rice do not need to be repeated.

Textual ellipsis is very common in:

• reading comprehension passages (WAEC, NECO, WASSCE, KCSE, BECE)
• literature texts
• news reports and academic writing

Situational Ellipsis

Here, the physical situation or the conversation makes the missing words clear.

Example 3 (informal speech – Nigeria)

• “What time is it?” – “Don’t know.”
  (Full form: “I don’t know.”)

Example 4 (classroom dialogue – Ghana)

• Teacher: “Ready for the test?”
• Students: “Yes!”
  (Full form: “Are you ready…?” – “Yes, we are.”)

Example 5 (everyday speech – UK/US)

• “Coming?” (Full: “Are you coming?”)
• “Be there in a minute.” (Full: “I’ll be there in a minute.”)

In exams like IELTS Speaking or TOEFL Speaking, native speakers use a lot of situational ellipsis. Learners who expect every subject and auxiliary to appear can feel confused. So learning ellipsis improves listening comprehension as well.

Substitution in Grammar – Definition and Explanation

Substitution is slightly different from ellipsis. We do not simply leave words out. Instead, we replace repeated words or phrases with a short substitute word, such as one, ones, do, so, not.

Substitution and ellipsis both reduce repetition, but:

• Ellipsis: we omit the repeated part.
• Substitution: we replace the repeated part with a short word.

The Cambridge Dictionary explains that substitution uses words like do, so, not instead of a full clause Cambridge Dictionary – Ellipsis

Types of Substitution

We can group substitution into three broad types:

1. Nominal substitution – substitutes for nouns or noun phrases
2. Verbal substitution – substitutes for verbs or verb phrases
3. Clausal substitution – substitutes for whole clauses

Nominal Substitution – Using one / ones and the same

Here, one or ones replaces a noun already mentioned.

• “I prefer the blue biro.” – “I prefer the red one.”
• “This exercise book is old. I need a new one.”

In global English exams:

• “I have lost my ticket. Can I buy another one?” (IELTS / TOEFL style)
• “These chairs are broken. Please bring those ones near the window.” (classroom instruction in South Africa or Kenya)

We also use the same for substitution:

• “My timetable is the same as yours.”
  (Substitutes for “your timetable”.)

Verbal Substitution – Using do / does / did / do so

Here, a verb or verb phrase is replaced by do, does, did or sometimes do so.

• “She sings better than I do.”
  (= “than I sing.”)
• “The coach told us to train hard, and we did so.”
  (= “and we trained hard.”)
• Nigerian context:
  “Bola always submits her assignment on time. I wish I did.”
  (= “I wish I submitted my assignment on time.”)

Clausal Substitution – Using so and not

Sometimes a whole clause is substituted by so or not.

• “Will Ade pass WAEC this year?” – “I think so.”
  (= I think he will pass.)
• “Is she coming to JAMB lessons?” – “I hope not.”
  (= I hope she is not coming.)
• British or American context:
  “Is it going to rain?” – “I don’t think so.”
  “Will they cancel the match?” – “I hope not.”

Clausal substitution appears very often in spoken English, film dialogues and interview transcripts.

Why Ellipsis and Substitution Are Important

1. They Improve Comprehension

As Cambridge notes, many learners find ellipsis and substitution difficult because key information is not stated fully [see Cambridge – Ellipsis and substitution]. If you do not recognise them, you may feel that parts of the sentence are “missing”.

In African exams such as WAEC, NECO, KCSE and WASSCE, comprehension passages often use these devices. The same is true of:

• JAMB UTME reading passages
• IELTS Reading and Listening
• Cambridge IGCSE and O‑Level English
• TOEFL and SAT passages

Knowing ellipsis and substitution helps you follow the logic of texts instead of getting lost in details.

2. They Make Your Writing Natural and Cohesive

Over‑repetition makes writing sound childish or mechanical.

Compare:

• Repetitive:
  “The teacher gave the students a test. The students wrote the test. The students submitted the test.”
• Better, with cohesion devices:
  “The teacher gave the students a test. They wrote it and then submitted it.”
  (Pronoun, substitution, ellipsis)

Good essays, reports and narratives use a mix of:

• pronouns
• conjunctions
• ellipsis and substitution

to guide the reader smoothly from sentence to sentence.

3. They Help You Sound More Fluent When Speaking

In real conversation in Lagos, Accra, Nairobi, London or New York, native and near‑native speakers rarely repeat full clauses. They shorten:

• “You coming?” (ellipsis)
• “I hope so.” (substitution)
• “Can you?” – “Yes, I can.” (ellipsis + substitution)

When you use these patterns correctly, your speech sounds more natural and less bookish, which is an advantage in IELTS or other speaking tests.

How to Spot Ellipsis and Substitution – A Quick Checklist

Checklist for Ellipsis

When you read or listen, ask:

1. Does this sentence feel “short” or “incomplete”?
2. Can I guess a missing subject?
   • e.g. “[I] Don’t know.”
3. Can I guess missing auxiliary verbs?
   • e.g. “[Have you] Finished?”
4. Is there a coordinated clause with and / but / or where something is not repeated?
   • e.g. “He came in and [he] sat down.”
5. Can I insert the missing words from the previous sentence or question?

If yes, you probably have ellipsis.

Checklist for Substitution

Look for short words like one, ones, do, does, did, so, not, the same and ask:

1. Which noun can one/ones stand for?
2. What verb phrase can do / does / did / do so stand for?
3. Which clause can so / not stand for?
4. If I replace the substitute word with the full form, does the sentence still make sense?

If yes, you are seeing substitution in action.

Worked Examples from Different Contexts

Nigerian and African Contexts

1. “Ngozi has passed NECO. I hope Chinedu does”

1. • does = passes NECO (verbal substitution)

2. “We are going to the stadium. Are you coming?”

1. • The full question could be “Are you coming with us?”
   • The earlier clause gives enough context (situational ellipsis).

3. “These WAEC past questions are difficult, but those new ones online are easier.”

1. • ones = WAEC past questions (nominal substitution)

4. “I’ll buy the mathematics textbook today. You can buy yours”

1. • yours substitutes for “your mathematics textbook”.

Global Exam Contexts

5. “Has she finished her assignment?” – “Yes, she has.”

1. • has = has finished her assignment (verbal substitution + ellipsis)

6. “Some students attend extra English lessons; others do not.”

1. • not = do not attend extra English lessons (clausal substitution)

7. “I wanted the red shoes, but they only had black ones”

1. • Common in IELTS / TOEFL reading texts.

Quick Quiz – Test Yourself

Choose the best answer in each sentence.

1. “I have read the passage twice, but my brother has not ______.”
   a) reading it
   b) read
   c) done
   d) done so
2. “Do you like plantain chips?” – “Yes, I ______.”
   a) like
   b) do
   c) am
   d) did
3. “These markers are dry; please give me working ______.”
   a) one
   b) ones
   c) them
   d) those
4. “Is Lydia writing the IELTS exam this year?” – “I don’t think ______.”
   a) yes
   b) not
   c) so
   d) she is
5. Identify the underlined device:
   “He bought a new laptop last month. Yesterday, I bought one”
   Is one an example of:
   a) pronoun reference
   b) nominal substitution
   c) verbal substitution
   d) textual ellipsis

Answers

1. d) done so
2. b) do
3. b) ones
4. c) so
5. b) nominal substitution

Practice Exercises and Assignment (With Answers)

Exercise 1 – Fill in with Ellipsis or Substitution

Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence using ellipsis or substitution. Answers appear just after the questions.

1. Amina likes watching Nigerian movies. Her sister likes watching Nigerian movies too.
2. I have not submitted my project. Tunde has submitted his project.
3. These bags are heavy. Those bags are heavy too.
4. Will they reschedule the KCSE exam? I hope they will not reschedule the KCSE exam.
5. I wanted to travel to Accra. My parents did not want me to travel to Accra.

Suggested Answers

1. Amina likes watching Nigerian movies, and her sister does too.
2. I have not submitted my project, but Tunde has.
3. These bags are heavy, and those ones are too.
4. Will they reschedule the KCSE exam? I hope not.
5. I wanted to travel to Accra, but my parents did not.

Exercise 2 – Identify the Device

Say whether each bold item is ellipsis (E) or substitution (S).

1. “Have you ironed your school uniform?” – “Yes, I have.”
2. “Who took my pen?” – “Not me.” (instead of “I did not take your pen.”)
3. “I bought the first textbook. Tolu bought the second one.”
4. “Going to class?” (instead of “Are you going to class?”)
5. “She said she would call, but she never did.”

Answers

1. S (verbal substitution: have = have ironed my school uniform)
2. Mostly E (subject + auxiliary omitted in “Not me”; full form is “It was not me.”)
3. S (nominal substitution: one = textbook)
4. E (subject you and auxiliary are omitted)
5. S (verbal substitution: did = called)

Assignment – Short Paragraph (With Sample Answer)

Task:
Write a short paragraph of 6–8 sentences about exam preparation in your country (Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, South Africa, the UK, India, etc.). Use:

• at least two examples of ellipsis, and
• at least two examples of substitution.

Then underline the examples.

Sample answer (for self-checking):

In Nigeria, many students start preparing for WAEC and JAMB months before the exam. Some attend evening lessons, while others do so at weekends. Teachers often tell them to read past questions, and the serious ones do. Not all students follow this advice, though. Some say they will start next week, but they never do. During the last week before the exam, they stay up late revising. [They] Feel tired, but [they] keep going because they want to pass.

Possible devices (you can mark them in your own work):

• do so, do (verbal substitution)
• [They] Feel tired, [they] keep going (situational ellipsis of they)

You can create your own paragraph for WAEC, NECO, KCSE, WASSCE, BECE, IELTS or TOEFL preparation and check that you have used the devices correctly.

Further Reading – Build Your Grammar Network

To deepen your understanding of how sentences link together, you can explore related topics on Akademia:

• Tense in English Grammar: Definition, Types and Examples – helps you see how time and verb forms work together in cohesive texts.
• Definition, Types and Examples of Aspect in English Grammar – explains how ongoing and completed actions affect meaning and cohesion.
• Groups/Phrase in English (with Definition, Types and Functions) – shows how phrases are built, which is essential for spotting what has been left out in ellipsis.
• The English Verbal Group (Types with Examples) – gives more detail on verb groups, which often form the part omitted or substituted.
• Ellipsis in English

For other explanations with more examples of ellipsis and substitution, see:

• Cambridge Dictionary – Ellipsis

Final Tips – Using Ellipsis and Substitution Wisely

To master ellipsis and substitution in grammar as cohesion devices:

1. Notice them when you read novels, news articles, exam passages and the Bible or Qur’an translations.
2. Underline examples in WAEC, NECO, KCSE or IELTS past questions.
3. Practise rewriting repetitive sentences by:
   • leaving out obvious words (ellipsis)
   • replacing repeated phrases with one, ones, do, so, not (substitution)
4. Read your writing aloud. If it sounds heavy or repetitive, add cohesion devices.

Share and Support Other Learners

If this article helped you understand ellipsis and substitution in grammar, please share it widely:

• with students preparing for WAEC, NECO, WASSCE, JAMB, KCSE, BECE, IELTS, TOEFL and other exams
• teachers of English in secondary schools, language centres and universities
• with friends or colleagues who still struggle with cohesion devices

The more clearly we explain these ideas, the more confident and successful English users we will have across Nigeria, Africa and the world.

You can also bookmark this page and return to the quizzes and assignments whenever you need a quick revision.